Study into the Prevalence of FGM in Nigeria

Study into the Prevalence of FGM in Nigeria 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Data The Nigerian Demographic Health Surveys (NDHS) of 2013 supporting evidence and additional sources of data from published reports of NDHS 2013 have been used in this study. Datasets for 2013 Nigerian DHS were downloaded following approval from measuredhs.com. Authorisation was obtained via registering with measuredhs.com, requesting permission to use datasets. Permission to use data was granted via email. (Appendix I). Demographic Health surveys have been ongoing for over 30 years in over 90 countries with over 300 surveys aimed at fostering global knowledge of health and population trends in developing countries. DHS surveys are nationally representative household surveys in women aged 15-49 (and sometimes men aged 15-49) which yield internationally comparable data on health indicators in developing countries. Datasets produced from this surveys are owned by measuredhs.com as part of the projects implemented by Macro International, with its funding from USAID. In most countries the DHS surveys are conducted every five years providing retrospective estimates of four years including year of study, with large samples from households through face to face interviews using standardised questionnaires designed to gather information on female genital cutting, maternal and child health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS, family planning, gender, malaria as well as the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. DHS surveys involve large samples In Nigeria, the National Population Commission (NPC) representing the Federal Government of Nigeria, conducts the survey with technical assistance from Macro International. The purpose of this data collected is to direct policy making, planning, monitoring and evaluation of programmes. Two phases are involved; First phase involves enumeration of urban and rural areas in clusters based on national population distributions. Eligible households are selected using systematic sampling, allowing for a large sample to achieve statistically significant results (Hajian-Tilaki, 2011). The second phase involves data collection using the three standard DHS questionnaires (household, women and men questionnaires). In the Nigerian Demographic Health Survey 2013, data was collected over five months, completed questionnaires were then edited, processed in CSPro computer package and all that was cleaned. This ensures accuracy of information and confidentiality to participants. Data collected is standardized by weighting adjusting for over and under sampling to produce representative results (NDHS, 2013). The NDHS 2013 facilitates a comprehensive picture of the current global trends on knowledge and prevalence of FGM among women and their daughters, types of circumcision, age at circumcision, and attitudes toward the practice to be constructed. Prior to NDHS Surveys of 2013 there were subsequent surveys in 1999, 2003, 2008 which collected data on FGM. This surveys reported prevalence of FGM in Nigeria amongst women age 15 to 49 as shown in table below: Table 2.1 showing prevalence of FGM in Nigeria from NDHS surveys. The prevalence of FGM in Nigeria from 2003 to 2008 recorded an increase and this was partly from the use of a new definition for what constitutes as FGM and also differences in the data available for selecting the sample. Interviewers used in the northeast of Nigeria included local forms of cutting and scraping of the vaginal walls in their definition of what constitutes FGM. The data bases for selecting the samples for the Nigeria DHS of 2003 and 2008 were relatively different, hence that made the distribution of the samples by region variant. (Yoder et al 2013). In the 2013 NDHS, the definition of FGM explicitly followed the WHO definition of FGM. In dissecting trends linked with FGM in Nigeria, it is unlikely that comparing prevalence of FGM using Nigeria DHS over years will give valid reasons for the trends over the years due to differences mentioned earlier (NDHS, 2013). 2.2 Variables The drivers of FGM from previous studies identified as mix of cultural, religious and social factors within families and communities. The variables of interest in this study are those related to these drivers of FGM and are classified as social, cultural, economic and geographical factors (WHO, 2014). For effective analyses some of the variables have been recoded. A full list of variables is attached in Appendix II. The outcome or dependent variable considered in this analyses is FGM; whether a woman had FGM or not. Other secondary outcomes of interest in this study is who performs FGM, perspectives and opinions on FGM were also examined (further categorized in table 2.1). The main independent variable in this study is Age at time of survey which serves as an indicator of the birth cohort of the participant. The exposure variables of interest in this study- residence, region- in order to analyse subpopulation trends. Other variables included in this study religion, ethnicity, education and wealth. The variable wealth index, measures a household relative economic status. This is calculated by a process which recodes and pools together data on household assets such as type of toilet, ownership of durable goods, etc. to produce a continuous standardized scale. This variables although not exhaustive have been selected because of their association with culture, socio-economic status which have an impact on the FGM practice (WHO, 2014). The relationship examined in this study will use the following variables Table 2.1 Definition and categorization of variables. *Types of FGM in table above (a) type I and II; flesh removed from genital area (b) type IV; genital area nicked no flesh removed (c); type III genital area closed. WHO classification for FGM (WHO, 2014). **All major ethnic groups in Nigeria and FGM practicing groups of significance from NDHS 2013 survey. 2.2 Data Analysis 2.2. 1 Conceptual Framework for analysing trends linked with FGM in Nigeria (WHO, 2014; NDHS Reports, 2013). The framework for analysis of trends linked with FGM will take in to cognizance sociodemographic factors that can confound or mediate the practice of FGM in Nigeria. This factors are shown below: Figure 2.1 above showing conceptual framework for analysis of FGM trends. 2.4 Data Analysis All analyses in this study were computed using SPSS v.22. The Data was weighted and complex sampling procedures used to minimise errors from sampling techniques used in NDHS 2013, thus ensuring results are valid (IBM 2015). The sampling weight was used for all analysis. A major part of the analyses involved handling of data using syntax files, a programme of orders which automatically computes analysis and can be saved. Some programmes used for the analyses can be found in Appendix III. The following statistical analysis were carried out to achieve the aim and objectives of this study: 2.4.1 Descriptive Analysis The analysis examined the following areas: General distribution of background characteristics of women age 15-49: frequency of background characteristics General Distribution of FGM related perspectives and opinions- frequencies of perspectives and opinions in the following: Ever heard of FGM Age women had FGM Prevalence of FGM including types Who performed FGM Number of daughters with FGM Beliefs on FGM required by religion Views on if FGM practice should continue or stop. Trends of FGM prevalence including types of FGM: percentage of women with FGM and its relationship by background characteristics, percentage of types of FGM and its relationship by background characteristics. Trends of perspectives and opinions on FGM by background characteristics: as listed above from b i, ii, iv, v, vi and vii. Trends of beliefs on FGM required by religion: percentage of women with FGM by beliefs on FGM required by religion Trends on opinions of FGM practice should stop or continue: percentage of women with FGM opinion on practice should stop or continue Trends of perspectives and opinions on FGM by age. Besides percentages and confidence intervals, chi-square test for trends are computed to ascertain the statistical significance of these associations. 2.4.2 Logistic regression analysis The variables on women background characteristics and perspectives of FGM were fitted into regression models in order to determine the extent they predict the outcome i.e. having FGM (b) to ascertain if the practice is declining or increasing by birth cohorts. This form of analysis involves computing bivariate and multivariate analyses using the main outcome FGM as the dependent variable and the previous variables (i.e. background characteristics) as the independent variables. In the bivariate analysis all independent variables except region were fitted into the model to estimate the crude trends in having FGM. Region was exempted to minimise confounding. A multivariate analysis involved fitting the same variables into the model controlling for age, education, ethnicity, economic status (wealth), urban-rural residence, and religion. The aim is to ascertain the relative importance of each variable as a predictor of having FGM. The reference categories for each variable fitted into the regression model are: age (15-19) education (no education), ethnic group (others), Residence (rural), religion (Islam), wealth index (richest).

Dash Diet Evaluation

Audrey Conn Special Diet Project 04/19/12 The Dash Diet 1. The diet I chose to follow is called the DASH diet. It stands for dietary approaches to stop hypertension (The Dash Diet Eating Plan, 2012). 2. The diet was created for people with hypertension. I followed the diet for three days. Normally I don’t think I would have had a problem following this diet because I tend to eat the same foods already but situational factors affected my outcome. The combination of work and finals didn’t give me adequate time to prepare meals.I tried my hardest to get the fruit, grains, and nuts/seeds/legumes servings in because those were the easiest to eat on the go. I followed that pretty well but I definitely didn’t get all of my vegetable, lean meat/poultry/fish, or dairy servings in. 3. The general purpose of this diet is to prevent and control hypertension, also known as high blood pressure. Besides lowering blood pressure this diet aims to improve insulin sensitivity, lowe r cholesterol, reduce the risk of; cancer, stroke, heart disease, kidney stones, and diabetes, and can also be used as a weight loss diet (The Dash Diet Eating Plan, 2012). . There are a few factors that could potentially make this diet difficult to follow. This diet calls for a lot of whole foods like fruit and vegetables and lean meat. Since this diet is specifically for hypertensive individuals processed foods are out of the question because they contain a large amount of sodium. This detail could pose a problem to those with a hectic lifestyle. Many people don’t have the time to cook or prepare fresh foods. And others simply don’t enjoy it. If a person isn’t willing to avoid the convenience of processed foods than they cannot follow this diet.This also poses a problem for those that are in the lower class. Fresh fruits and vegetables are more expensive than processed foods and some may not be able to afford it. Availability of the fruits and vegetables could be a problem as well. I didn’t have a problem finding them but someone that doesn’t live near a grocery might, or in an area that does not import out of season produce. Your education on nutrition might hinder your success with this diet. You need to know how to read nutrition labels, your calorie/nutritional needs, serving sizes for different foods, and food reparation. Luckily you can buy The DASH Diet Action Plan book on the website that has a lot of helpful information, advice, and recipes. 5. The first difference is that the Dash Diet categorizes food into 7 groups opposed to 5 on the food guide pyramid. The diet separates legumes and meat into 2 different groups. The food guide pyramid also took out a fats and sweets category whereas the Dash Diet still includes it. The fruit, vegetable and dairy food groups were all very similar in serving size. Grain consumption was a couple servings higher in the Dash Diet.Over all protein was also a little higher because the diet puts legumes/seeds/nuts into a separate group. 6. The Dash Diet focuses on low sodium consumption, or more precisely, the correct amount of sodium consumption. The typical eating pattern includes more sodium than our body needs. This diet also has a higher fiber content than most people usually consume. 7. This diet plan is made for long term use. It contains all the necessary vitamins and minerals that our body needs. As long as you switch up the variety in your foods you won’t be lacking or consuming excessive nutrients. 8.Trying to fit enough lean meat and dairy into my diet was the biggest change I had to make. On average I probably get only 2 to 4 servings of lean meat/fish/poultry a week. Tuna was the easiest way for me to get the servings in. My lack of extra time would make this diet hard for me to follow well. My schedule is always changing so preparing foods all the time would be a hassle. It is also more expensive to follow this diet than my typical eating ha bits. Money isn’t something I have a lot of. 9. If I had hypertension and was expected to follow this diet I don’t think the transition would be that difficult.However, the transition would be easier if I had a scheduled time every day or every week that gave me time to prepare food and meals in bulk to save time. 10. I think I’ll have a better understanding of what others go through when they have special diets. It can be a large inconvenience depending on your lifestyle. I’ll also have an appreciation for those that have special diets and actually follow them. I had issues with just three days. Works Cited The Dash Diet Eating Plan. (2012, April). Retrieved from The DASH Diet: http://dashdiet. org/

La Historia Me Absolvera also known as History Will...

The time of the Cuban Revolution involved a great deal of turmoil for Cuba as well as other countries around the world. In 1945, shortly after the end of World War II, the Cold War was taking off between the United States and the Soviet Union.1 Cuba was in the middle of its own war, the revolution, when they caught up in the international politics of the Cold War. The interaction between international and domestic politics played a major role in the outcome of the revolution. The result of the revolution left Fidel Castro in charge of Cuba. The Platt Amendment states that the United States has the ability to interfere at various points in Cuba’s history. This gave America the ability to better serve its own interests in the region,†¦show more content†¦The Fifth Revolutionary Law states that any gains received illegally under other regimes will be confiscated by special courts set up to review records and find any of these gains obtained illegally. These confisca ted gains will go to pay retirements for workers and to set up hospitals and charitable organizations.12 In addition, people believe that Castro’s speech on revolution was a communist conspiracy as well as a socialist ideologies. However, Fidel deceived the Cuban society and led them to believe that his goals and help him represent democracy. In Castro’s speech, History Will Absolve Me, he discusses different kinds of policies that he would like to enforce on Cuba and make the Cuban society believers of his ideologies. In the end, Fidel did not achieve what he initially wanted for the people of Cuba. Even though, the actual Revolution was successful he failed to abide by his promises to the people regarding a successful economic reform in Cuba. The actions taken by Castro in his trial and his History Will Absolve Me speech really showed his view on the anti-Batista movement. It helped the people of Cuba to understand his passion to reform the country and increase the living situations in Cuba. I believe that Castro’s trial speech History Will Absolve Me, is a socialist document. This speech is a theory of social organization of ownership and control of how Fidel wanted Cuba to be. CastroShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Cuban Revolution773 Words   |  4 Pagesdomestic politics played a major role in the outcome of the revolution. The result of the revolution left Fidel Castro in charge of Cuba. The Platt Amendment states that the United States has the ability to interfere at various points in Cuba’s history. This gave America the ability to better serve its own interests in the region, including sugar production, which prevented Cuba from expanding its economy by any important means. Problems arose when Flugencio Batista had intents and purposes to throw

The Arts Is An Essential Element Of Education - 1245 Words

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